Title: Recruiting and Retaining Women: A Self-Assessment Guide for Law Enforcement. Series: Guide Author: Bureau of Justice Assistance; National Center for Women & Policing Published: 2000 Subject: Law Enforcement; Police recruitment, selection, and retention 281 pages 411,000 bytes ---------------------- Figures, charts, forms, and tables are not included in this ASCII plain-text file. To view this document in its entirety, download the Adobe Acrobat graphic file available from this Web site or order a print copy from NCJRS at 800-851-3420, BJA at 800-688-4252, or the Office for Victims of Crime Resource Center at 800-627-6872. ---------------------- Table of Contents Preface How This Self-Assessment Guide is Organized Chapter 1: Hiring and Retaining More Women: The Advantages to Law Enforcement Agencies Chapter 2: Assessing a Law Enforcement Agency Chapter 3: Developing a Job Description Statement of the Problem Legal Issues Possible Solutions, Model Policies and Practices Checklist for Developing a Job Description Chapter 4: Recruiting Quality Candidates Statement of the Problem Legal Issues Possible Solutions, Model Policies and Practices Forming a Recruitment Committee Designing Recruitment Brochures and Posters Establishing a Recruiting Team Training Recruiters Finding Sources of Women Recruits Incentive Programs Youth Outreach Programs Monitoring Recruitment Efforts Recruiting for State Agencies Recruiting for Sheriff's Departments Checklist for Recruiting Quality Candidates Chapter 5: Removing Obstacles in the Selection Process Statement of the Problem Physical Testing Written Examinations Oral Interviews Background Investigations Psychological Evaluation Medical Evaluation Ranking and Hiring Eligible Applicants Checklist for Removing Obstacles in the Selection Process Chapter 6: Designing Quality Recruit Academies and Field Training Programs Statement of the Problem Legal Issues Possible Solutions, Model Policies and Practices Training Committee Curriculum Selecting the Academy Director Selecting the Academy Instructors Physical Fitness and Skills Firearms Training Sexual Harassment, Discrimination, and Hostile Work Environment Selection of Field Training Officers Monitoring Progress of Recruits Checklist for Designing Quality Recruit Academies and Field Training Programs Chapter 7: Mentoring to Increase Retention Statement of the Problem Legal Issues Possible Solutions, Model Policies and Practices Benefits of Mentoring Programs Formal Mentoring Programs Applicant Mentoring New Hire Mentoring Selection of Mentors Training for Mentors and Mentees Evaluation Post-Academy Mentoring Informal Mentoring Programs Checklist for Mentoring for Retention Chapter 8: Valuing Civilian Employees Statement of the Problem Legal Issues Possible Solutions, Model Policies and Practices Career Path and Civilianization of Positions Inclusiveness Advocacy Equal Pay Training Inclusion of Civilian Staff Checklist for Valuing Civilian Employees Chapter 9: Implementing Family-Friendly Policies Statement of the Problem Legal Issues Possible Solutions, Model Policies and Practices Comprehensive Policies Light Duty Range Qualification Uniforms Disability Insurance and Paid Leave Benefits Child Care Issues Flexible Work Options Checklist for Implementing Family-Friendly Policies Chapter 10: Monitoring Performance Evaluations Statement of the Problem Legal Issues Possible Solutions, Model Policies and Practices What Should be Evaluated? Training Evaluators Setting Goals for Performance Reviewing Evaluations for Bias Checklist for Monitoring Performance Evaluations Chapter 11: Assignments and Promotion Statement of the Problem Legal Issues Possible Solutions, Model Policies and Practices Preparing Women for the Promotion Process Examining the Promotion Process Using Assessment Centers Traditional Promotion Systems Promotability Ratings Seniority Promoting the "First Woman" Checklist for Assignments and Promotions Chapter 12: Preventing Sexual and Gender Harassment, Discrimination, And Retaliation Statement of the Problem Legal Issues Possible Solutions, Model Policies and Practices Developing a Comprehensive Sexual Harassment Policy Designing an Effective Training Program Designing and Implementing a Complaint and Investigation Process Discrimination Investigation Unit Investigation Guidelines Screening Discrimination Investigators Training Discrimination Investigators Disciplining Offenders Preventing Retaliation Monitoring of Harassment Prevention Programs Holding Managers and Supervisors Accountable Checklist for Preventing Sexual and Gender Harassment, Discrimination, and Retaliation Chapter 13: Ensuring Impartial Internal Investigation and Discipline Systems Statement of the Problem Legal Issues Possible Solutions, Model Policies and Practices Complaint Investigation Policy Selection and Training of Investigators Anonymous Complaints Preventing Retaliation Discriminatory Referrals Documenting Investigations Breaking the Code of Silence Investigation Timelines Notification of Investigation Results Data Collection and Reporting Checklist for Ensuring Impartial Internal Investigation and Discipline Systems Chapter 14: Developing Effective Awards and Recognition Programs Statement of the Problem Legal Issues Possible Solutions, Model Policies and Practices Checklist for Developing Effective Awards and Recognition Programs Areas for Further Research Works Cited Additional Resources Reader Comments ------------------- National Center for Women & Policing A division of the Feminist Majority Foundation, the National Center for Women & Policing (NCWP), promotes increasing the numbers of women at all ranks of law enforcement as a strategy to reduce police excessive force, strengthen community policing reforms, and improve police response to violence against women. Research conducted in the United States and internationally demonstrates that women police officers utilize a style of policing that relies less on physical force, are better at defusing potentially violent confrontations and less likely to become involved in use of excessive force, and respond more effectively to violence against women. The NCWP: o works to educate criminal justice policy makers, the media and the public about the impact of increasing the representation of women in policing; ensures that gender is included in the analysis of contemporary policing issues and reform efforts; and promotes initiatives aimed at gender balancing law enforcement agencies. o produces and disseminates original research on issues relevant to women in the field of law enforcement. The NCWP's publications and materials are the most authoritative available and in frequent demand by the news media and criminal justice policymakers and researchers. o provides direct assistance, training, and extensive materials to law enforcement agencies seeking to increase the representation of women within their ranks. The NCWP sponsors an annual leadership development conference for command level women in local, state, and federal law enforcement. Contact Information: 8105 W. Third Street, Los Angeles, CA 90048 323.651.2532 Fax 323.653.2689 womencops@feminist.org www.feminist.org/police/ncwp.html ------------------------ How the Self-Assessment Guide Was Developed The National Center for Women & Policing received a grant from the U.S. Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Assistance to provide technical assistance to law enforcement agencies by developing a self-assessment guide to assist agencies seeking to recruit and retain more women in sworn law enforcement positions. An Advisory Board was established consisting of state, county and municipal law enforcement executives and members of other professional organizations representing law enforcement leaders and minority groups in law enforcement. After a draft of the sections on job description, recruiting, selection, and mentoring were developed and approved by the Advisory Board, they were sent for field testing to Captain Mike Prynch at the Boise, Idaho, Police Department and Colonel Richard Rappoport at the Fairfax County, Virginia, Police Department. Each department reviewed the sections and utilized the checklists to examine their own agency's policies and procedures. Both departments provided valuable input regarding the content and format of the guide. Based on this input, the remaining sections of the guide were prepared and sent back to the participating agencies for review. The members of the Advisory Board reviewed and provided detailed input on several drafts of the guide during its development. The National Center for Women & Policing expresses its appreciation to Colonel J. Thomas Manger, Fairfax County, Virginia, Police Department and Chief Donald Pierce, Boise, Idaho, Police Department for agreeing to serve as test locations for the guide. Their cooperation and the input of their staff were vital to providing a valuable product for other law enforcement agencies. ------------------------- Acknowledgments Principal Author Chief Penny E. Harrington, Director National Center for Women & Policing Penny Harrington is the Director of the National Center for Women & Policing, a division of the Feminist Majority Foundation. Chief Harrington spent 23 years in the Portland, Oregon, Police Bureau, rising to the rank of Chief of Police. She was the first woman chief of a major U.S. city. After becoming chief, Harrington began the implementation of an agency-wide community policing program. Chief Harrington has been instrumental in opening the field of policing to women while being a mentor to women nationally. She was named Ms. Magazine's Woman of the Year in 1986 and in 2000 was installed in the Michigan State University, School of Criminal Justice, Wall of Fame. After leaving Portland, Chief Harrington became the Assistant Director of Investigations for the State Bar of California. As Founding Director of the National Center for Women & Policing, Penny is considered the foremost expert on women in contemporary American policing in the U.S. She speaks, writes, and conducts training about issues of gender in law enforcement and often serves as an expert witness in court cases about discrimination. Her autobiography, "Triumph of Spirit" chronicles her efforts to open policing to women. Contributing Authors Katherine Spillar, National Coordinator Feminist Majority Foundation Katherine Spillar is the National Coordinator of the Feminist Majority and Feminist Majority Foundation. She has been the driving force in executing the Foundation's diverse programs securing women's rights since its inception in 1987. A trained researcher and program manager, Ms. Spillar spearheaded the Feminist Majority's initiatives to gender-balance the Los Angeles Police Department from 1991-94, and served as co-convenor of the Women's Advisory Council to the LA Police Commission from 1992-93. In her capacity as National Coordinator, she oversees the activities of the National Center for Women & Policing. Kimberly A. Lonsway, PhD, Research Director National Center for Women & Policing Dr. Lonsway is the Research Director for the National Center for Women & Policing. She conducts the annual survey of the status of women in law enforcement along with other research initiatives of the NCWP. Lonsway was the project director on a grant from the Violence Against Women Office to develop a sexual assault curriculum for law enforcement on innovative methods of responding to cases of acquaintance rape. Dr. Lonsway is also teaches at California Polytechnic State University. Asst. Chief Roberta Webber (Ret.) Portland Police Bureau Asst. Chief Webber retired from the Portland Police Bureau in 1997 after nearly 26 years of service. She was the first female Commander, Deputy Chief, and Assistant Chief and the first woman to head the Operations Brach of the Police Bureau. In 1994, she was named one of Ten Outstanding Women in Oregon by the Women's Foundation of Oregon. Katherine A. (Kay) Baldwin U.S. Department of Justice, Civil Rights Division, Chief of the Employment Litigation Section of the Civil Rights Division at the U.S. Department of Justice, Ms. Baldwin is also Chair of the Attorney General's Advisory Committee on the Prevention of Sexual Harassment. Alexandra Besser, Senior Researcher National Center for Women & Policing Alexandra Besser received her Bachelors of Arts in Political Science from Barnard College, Columbia University. Prior to joining the National Center for Women & Policing, Ms. Besser worked as a media researcher in Hong Kong and spent 2 years in Washington DC as a research associate for People for the American Way. Steven Stanard, PhD, CEO Stanard & Associates, Inc. A nationally recognized expert in entry-level written and physical ability examinations, promotional examinations, fitness for duty assessments and recruitment, Dr. Stanard consults with more than 500 police departments across the U.S. and internationally. Undersheriff Carol Daly Sacramento County Sheriff's Department Undersheriff Carol Daly is a 32-year veteran of the Sacramento Sheriff's Department. She has held assignments in every service area of the Department. Carol served as president of the Law Enforcement Chaplaincy Sacramento and is currently on the Board of Directors. She is also active with the Special Olympics and Habitat for Humanity charities. Records Manager Debra Haugen Portland Police Bureau Ms. Haugen has been with the Portland Police Bureau for 25 years and has served as Police Records Manager for 8 years. She is involved in a variety of Bureau-wide issues including co-chairing The Taking Community Policing into the Next Century committee that was charged with creating the vision for the Bureau. Chief Richard Rappoport Fairfax County Police Department, VA Chief Rappoport has served with the Fairfax County Police Department for 24 years and was formerly Deputy Chief of Police for Administration. He holds a Bachelors of Science degree in Justice from American University and is a graduate of the F.B.I. National Academy and the Southern Police Institute. Captain Ronald Webber (Ret.) Portland Police Bureau Captain Ronald Webber retired, after 27+ years, from the Portland Police Bureau. He is a graduate of the FBI National Academy and Webber has been involved in Community Policing program planning and implementation. His areas of expertise include Internal Investigations, Civilian Review Boards, and Training. Advisory Board: Chief Katherine Baldwin U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Civil Rights, Employment Litigation Section Undersheriff Carol Daly National Sheriff's Association Sacramento County Sheriff's Office, CA Sylvester Daughtry, Executive Director Commission on Accreditation for Law Enforcement Agencies John Firman, Research Director International Association of Chiefs of Police Sheriff Margo Frasier Travis County Sheriff's Office, TX Commander Gary Gee Asian-American Commanding Officers' Association Bay Area Rapid Transit Police, CA Laura Goodman-Brown, Director President, International Association of Women Police Minnesota Office of Crime Victims Ombudsman U.S. Marshal Rosa Melendez Hispanic American Police Commanding Officers' Association U.S. Marshal's Service Chief Charles Moose, PhD Montgomery County Police Department, MD Chief Annette Sandberg Washington State Patrol Katherine Spillar, National Coordinator Feminist Majority Foundation Steve Stanard, PhD, CEO Stanard & Associates Bob Stewart, Executive Director National Organization of Black Law Enforcement Executives Bureau of Justice Assistance, Department of Justice: Luke Gallant, Senior Advisor for Law Enforcement Jeannie Santos, Program Manager ------------------------ Preface How this Self-Assessment Guide is Organized The National Center for Women & Policing developed this manual, Recruiting & Retaining Women: A Self-Assessment Guide for Law Enforcement, to assist law enforcement agencies in hiring and retaining more women employees. The step by step guide is designed to help agencies examine their policies and procedures and to identify and remove obstacles to hiring and retaining sworn and civilian women employees at all levels within the organization. The guide also provides a list of resources for agencies to use when planning or implementing changes to their current policies and procedures. The Guide Contains Chapters Addressing the Following Issues: o Hiring and retaining more women: The advantages to law enforcement agencies o Assessing a law enforcement agency o Developing a job description o Recruiting quality candidates o Removing obstacles in the selection process o Designing quality recruit academies and field training programs o Mentoring to increase retention o Valuing civilian employees o Implementing family-friendly policies o Monitoring performance evaluations o Assignments and promotions o Preventing sexual and gender harassment, discrimination, and retaliation o Ensuring impartial internal investigation and discipline systems o Developing effective awards and recognition programs Each Chapter of the Guide Contains the Following Sections: Statement of the Problem For administrators to improve their policies and procedures for hiring and retaining women, a clear understanding of the issues covered in each chapter is necessary. In this section, the most common problems found in law enforcement agencies are discussed in detail. These problem statements are not intended to be accusatory, but were developed to assist agencies in gaining a more thorough understanding of the obstacles that exist to hiring and retaining women. Legal Issues Here, administrators are alerted to aspects of the issues covered in each chapter that may require legal input and review. Federal laws and court cases are sometimes cited. Due to variations in state and local laws, it is impossible to provide specific legal information for every agency. Since the area of employment law is frequently the subject of litigation and collective bargaining agreements, all changes to personnel policies and procedures should be reviewed with legal counsel before being implemented. Possible Solutions, Model Policies and Practices This section provides solutions that may assist agencies in removing obstacles to hiring and retaining women. These suggestions are very detailed and give practical guidance about each issue discussed in the problem statement. Whenever possible, model policies in use by other law enforcement agencies have been included. Expert Assistance, Reference Materials, Contact Persons, and Other Useful Information In this section, references, resources, and points of contact are provided for persons or agencies with pertinent expertise and innovative programs. In addition, a complete bibliography of related articles is included at the end of the guide. (For updated information on innovative programs and model policies, contact information, and bibliographies, see our website at http://www.feminist.org/police/ncwp.html.) Checklist A comprehensive checklist provides an overview of the steps involved at each stage of the self-assessment process. At a glance, users of the manual can determine whether they have reviewed key policies and practices impacting each major area of agency operations being assessed. No manual can be comprehensive enough to cover all areas of police personnel practices. Furthermore, there are many differences between law enforcement agencies and the environment in which any specific agency operates. This manual recognizes those differences, and is intended to provide broad direction and insight into what steps can be undertaken by an agency undertaking a self-assessment process. Agency size and organizational configuration should be considered, along with state and local laws and regulations, before the guide is used or modified for use by an agency. This manual is oriented primarily for medium to large law enforcement agencies, although the general philosophies should be applicable regardless of the agency size. The terminology used most often is that of a municipal police agency, but the manual is also applicable for sheriffs departments, state agencies such as state police, highway patrol, departments of public safety, as well as other law enforcement agencies such as game and fish, park and marine, university and school police, and federal law enforcement units. The National Center for Women & Policing disclaims any liability or responsibility for the consequences of any actions taken in reliance on the statements or opinions expressed in this manual. The materials contained herein are not intended to establish policy, procedure, or a standard of care. Readers should consult a legal advisor familiar with state and federal employment law prior to altering their policies and procedures. ------------------ Chapter 1 Hiring and Retaining More Women: The Advantages to Law Enforcement Agencies In 1968, the Indianapolis Police Department made history by assigning the first two female officers to patrol on an equal basis with their male colleagues.[1] Since that time, women have entered the field of law enforcement in increasing numbers and played a critical role in the development of modern policing. Yet, the number of women in law enforcement has remained small and the pace of increase slow. The most recent research shows that only 14.3% of sworn personnel are female, with an annual increase of only 0.5% over the last several years.[2] At this rate, women will not achieve parity within the police profession for at least another 70 years, and many have cautioned that time alone is not sufficient to substantially increasing their numbers.[3] In today's economy, law enforcement agencies are facing enormous challenges recruiting qualified candidates,[4] yet traditional strategies for recruitment frequently overlook an entire pool of potential applicants women.[5] The purpose of this self-assessment guide is to provide a clear and concrete blueprint for addressing this historic neglect by removing the many built-in obstacles to hiring and retaining more women in law enforcement. First, however, we outline why these measures are critically needed by documenting the many advantages that women officers bring to law enforcement agencies. Law enforcement today is facing a crisis--a crisis of public confidence and trust in the wake of police corruption scandals that are unparalleled in recent history. Highly publicized incidents of police use of excessive force have generated headlines in cities around the country. Police brutality and corruption lawsuits are costing taxpayers millions of dollars each year, and their numbers and costs are only increasing.[6] Money paid out in settlements and judgments is money that could otherwise be spent on crime prevention and treatment programs, on schools, social services, and other community programs that reduce crime. At the same time, police leaders and executives are under pressure to implement community or service-oriented policing, transforming the very nature of the relationship between law enforcement and the communities they serve. Nationwide, communities are demanding a shift in focus from their law enforcement agencies toward a more modern approach that emphasizes communication and cooperation with citizens as well as informal problem solving. What Does All of This Have to do With the Question of Hiring and Retaining More Women? Research conducted both in the United States and internationally clearly demonstrates that women police officers rely on a style of policing that uses less physical force. They are better at defusing and de-escalating potentially violent confrontations with citizens and less likely to become involved in problems with use of excessive force. Additionally, women officers often possess better communication skills than their male counterparts and are better able to facilitate the cooperation and trust required to implement a community policing model. In an era of costly litigation, hiring and retaining more women in law enforcement is likely to be an effective means of addressing the problems of excessive force and citizen complaints. As an additional benefit, female officers often respond more effectively to incidents of violence against women - crimes that represent one of the largest categories of calls to police departments.[7, 8] Increasing the representation of women on the force is also likely to address another costly problem for police administrators - the pervasive problem of sex discrimination and sexual harassment - by changing the climate of modern law enforcement agencies. Because women frequently have different life experiences than men, they approach policing with a different perspective, and the very presence of women in the field will often bring about changes in policies and procedures that benefit both male and female officers. All of these factors can work to the advantage of those in the police profession and the communities they serve. These advantages will be discussed in greater detail below to provide impetus for the type of improvements outlined throughout the self-assessment guide. We begin with the research demonstrating that female officers are equally capable as their male counterparts, and go on to summarize some of the work documenting the unique advantages that women offer to the contemporary field of law enforcement. Six Advantages for Law Enforcement Agencies That Hire and Retain More Women 1. Female Officers Are Proven to be as Competent as Their Male Counterparts. A number of early evaluations were conducted to determine the effectiveness of male versus female officers in law enforcement agencies such as Washington DC,[9] St. Louis,[10] New York City,[11] Denver,[12] Newton, Massachusetts,[13] Philadelphia,[14] California,[15] and Pennsylvania.[16] o The results clearly indicated that "men and women were equally capable of police patrol work."[17] o Similar research conducted in other countries has reached the same conclusion,[18] as do more recent efforts that find no meaningful difference between male and female officers in: their activities or productivity on patrol;[19] their commitment to law enforcement organizations;[20] their response to violent confrontations;[21] and their performance evaluations received both at the academy and on the job.[22] In fact, some studies indicate areas of police performance in which women excel. o In one study, female police executives were found to be more flexible, emotionally independent, self-assertive, self-confident, proactive, and creative than their male counterparts. o Other research consistently demonstrates that women in law enforcement have more education than their male peers.[23] Clearly, the body of evidence suggests that male and female police officers are equally capable to successfully meet the demands of the law enforcement profession. As one researcher observed, "not all women are able to handle all police jobs--but neither are all men [Moreover,] in some respects at least, women are better suited for police work than men."[24] 2. Female Officers Are Less Likely to Use Excessive Force. "Police work used to be like a laborer's job...the only requirement was that you had to be tough. Now, that's not what we're looking for...[The job] is all about knowing how to talk to people. We screen for drug use, criminal background, but we don't do much screening for people who can get along with other people...A good cop knows how to defuse the situation by talking it out."[25] As this quote indicates, a "good cop" uses communication skills in every aspect of the job and can often reduce the need for force by deescalating potentially violent situations. By this criterion, women clearly make "good cops," as demonstrated in research both in the U.S. and internationally over the last 25 years. o To date, there are a number of studies demonstrating that female officers utilize a less authoritarian style of policing that relies less on physical force--despite research showing women respond to similar calls and encounter similar dangers on duty and are as effective as their male counterparts in performing police duties.[26] Other recent research finds no difference in the level of force used by male verses female officers during the course of routine professional duties.[27] Additionally, women are less likely to engage in high-risk pursuits that may harm individuals involved.[28] Yet regardless of whether female and male officers use comparable levels of force during routine activity, it is clear that women are significantly less likely to be involved in employing both deadly force[29]and excessive force.[30] (See Appendix A for the Feminist Majority Foundation and National Center for Women & Policing's study, "Gender Differences in the Cost of Police Brutality and Misconduct: A Content Analysis of LAPD Civil Liability Cases: 1990-1999.") The Question of Force and Physical Strength The question of force lies at the heart of the traditional reluctance to hire women into policing. A number of studies document that both police officers and community members are concerned that women are not strong enough or aggressive enough for police work.[31] o Yet physical strength has not been shown to predict either general police effectiveness[32] or the ability to successfully handle dangerous situations.[33] o In fact, there are no documented cases of negative outcomes due to the lack of strength or aggression exhibited by a female officer.[34] o Rather, some have suggested that alternative characteristics might be preferable to physical strength, such as the ability to defuse potential violence[35] and maintain composure in situations of conflict.[36] It is therefore important to note that female officers not only exhibit more reasoned caution than their male counterparts, but also that they increase this tendency in their male partners.[37] Given that an estimated 80-90% of policing involves noncriminal or service functions,[38] the emphasis in traditional policing on physical strength might actually serve as a liability to police departments seeking to successfully meet the demands of their community. In addition, it serves to "weed out" women (and men) who could potentially implement an alternative model of policing that focuses less on physical force and more on interpersonal communication.[39] An Emphasis on Communication A shift away from an emphasis on physical force is likely to capitalize on the interpersonal skills that female officers possess, not only in equal measure to their male counterparts, but often to a greater degree. Perhaps for this reason, at least two studies have documented a preference among community members for female officers to respond to potentially dangerous situations.[40] Unfortunately, these interpersonal skills have not traditionally been emphasized in selection standards and background investigations. In fact, a history of perpetrating violence has often been ignored when screening potential candidates.[41] However, in today's environment of ever-increasing litigation, law enforcement agencies cannot afford to overlook any means of reducing their risk of excessive force in favor of a more service-oriented style of policing.[42] By hiring and retaining more women, departments can go a long way toward transforming their focus to one that emphasizes interpersonal skills and cooperation with the community. 3. Female Officers Can Help Implement Community-Oriented Policing Community policing represents a new approach to modern law enforcement, emphasizing communication and cooperation with citizens as well as informal problem solving. It is therefore important to note that women officers receive more favorable evaluations and fewer citizens complaints than their male counterparts.[43] o To illustrate, one study found that male officers were the target of 50% more insults by citizens and almost three times as many threats or attempts at injury in comparison with their female peers.[44] o In another study, police training instructors indicated that female officers have an advantage over their male peers in several areas, including empathy toward others and interacting in a way that is not designed to "prove" something.[45] For their part, female officers are reportedly less cynical in their view of citizens,[46] which is noteworthy because such an orientation is associated with a decreased likelihood of using both reasonable and/or excessive force.[47] Women in law enforcement are also less likely to be involved in misconduct,[48] and they report greater support for the principles of community policing than their male colleagues.[49] It is no wonder, then, that many have suggested hiring more female officers as a way of improving the public image of the police department.[50] 4. More Female Officers Will Improve Law Enforcement's Response to Violence Against Women. Research indicates that 2-3 million women are physically assaulted each year in the U.S. by their male partners,[51] and that 21-34% of American women are physically assaulted by a male intimate sometime during their adult lives.[52] In addition, the most recent national estimates indicate that one out of six American women will be sexually assaulted[53] and one out of 12 will be stalked[54] during their lifetime. Clearly, the extent of the problem highlights the critical importance of police response to crimes of violence against women. The cost of failure in this particular area is high, both in human and financial terms. o Ineffective police response has been found to deter victims of domestic violence from reporting future assaults.[55] o Inappropriate response also adds to the risk of litigation, as departments are increasingly being held liable for failing to properly handle domestic violence. This is especially true in cases where a protective order has been issued.[56] Fortunately, the benefits of success are also substantial, as effective police response has been found to both improve the self-esteem of battered women[57] and increase the likelihood that they will leave abusive relationships.[58] Because the police response to crimes of violence against women is so critical, it is worth noting that female officers have long been viewed as more effective in this area than their male counterparts.[59] This perception is shared by the community,[60] police training instructors,[61] and female officers themselves.[62] It is also supported by research. o A 1985 study found that female officers demonstrated more concern, patience, and understanding than their male colleagues when responding to calls of domestic violence.[63] o In the same study, battered women who had contact with a female officer rated the police response as more helpful than those without such contact. They also rated the performance of female officers more favorably. Given that domestic violence represents the single largest category of calls made to police, this ability is critically important to the success of contemporary law enforcement in responding to the needs of the community.[64] The Problem of Police Family Violence Of course, it is insufficient to discuss the police response to violence against women without addressing the possibility that responding officers have committed these crimes themselves. Domestic violence has been documented in as many as 40% of police families,[65] and law enforcement agencies around the county are increasingly faced with the question of how to respond when these crimes are reported.[66] Many have noted the traditional failure of police departments to respond effectively to officer-involved domestic violence and described the grim reality thus faced by victims.[67] To improve the situation, the International Association of Chiefs of Police recently issued a number of policy recommendations.[68] Because violence against women is vastly more likely to be committed by men rather than women,[69],[70] another obvious recommendation is to increase the number of female law enforcement professionals. Increasing women's numbers in the ranks of law enforcement has the potential for lessening the chance that an officer who has perpetrated such a crime will handle crimes of violence against women. 5. Increasing the Presence of Female Officers Reduces Problems of Sex Discrimination and Harassment Within an Agency. Research documents that women in law enforcement continue to face a variety of obstacles, including negative attitudes, gender discrimination, and sexual harassment. o Research consistently demonstrates that the negative attitude of male colleagues is the single most significant problem reported by female officers.[71] o Other work documents the widespread prevalence of gender discrimination, under-utilization of female officers, and sexual harassment.[72] o In multi-departmental studies as many as 63-68% of the female officers report having experienced sexual harassment.[73] This climate of "widespread gender bias"[74] seen in contemporary police agencies has a number of deleterious effects, not the least of which is the negative impact on the retention and promotion of female officers. In general, although women enter and remain in the policing profession for many of the same reasons that men do, including the desirable pay and benefits, the challenges associated with the job, and the opportunity to help others,[75] they often leave for reasons that are very different, including unique stressors not faced by their male counterparts. These include: o Problems with co-worker gossip, training, lack of promotional opportunity, administrative policies that disadvantage female officers, and pressures to demonstrate their competence beyond what is expected by their male colleagues.[76] o Decreased trust in their colleagues.[77] o More physical consequences of stress.[78] o More indicators of burnout and greater intention to quit.[79] One of the most prominent impacts, however, deals with the lack of promotional opportunities. Male and female officers report the same desire for promotion,[80] yet these opportunities are seen as less available to women in comparison with their male counterparts.[81] This is certainly part of the explanation for the higher turnover rate that is consistently seen among female officers, both at the academy and on the job.[82] Extensive research reveals that sexual harassment is much more likely in male-dominated workplaces and in fields that have been traditionally considered masculine.[83] Hiring and retaining more women within a law enforcement agency will demonstratively reduce the exposure to liability by simply reducing the numeric under-representation of female officers. The increased representation of women can also have the benefit of transforming the very climate within a law enforcement agency and reducing the prevalence of gender discrimination, under-utilization, and sexual harassment.[84] 6. The Presence of Women Can Bring About Beneficial Changes in Policy for All Officers. Lewis Sherman envisioned as early as 1973 that police departments would be held liable for their under-representation of female officers and that hiring more women would not only bring them into compliance with the U.S. Constitution but also yield improvements in the procedures for selection, recruitment, and retention of all sworn personnel.[85] As he argued: "If a woman 5 feet, 3 inches tall can perform the job of patrol, why not a man who is the same height? If a woman needs better physical defense training, might not also a man? If a woman defuses a violent situation without having to make an arrest, shouldn't she or any man who does the same be given a high rating for effective law enforcement performance? Departments could move toward making their selection and training standards job-related, as well as toward development of new measures of police performance."[86] Improvements such as these would inevitably benefit both female and male employees within law enforcement. The Police Foundation similarly noted in 1974 that: "The introduction of women will create an incentive...to examine many management practices which are less acceptable now that they must be applied to men and women alike. This may result in the development of improved selection criteria, performance standards, and supervision for all officers."[87] They further concluded that the expanded supply of police personnel, the reduced cost of recruiting, and better community representation were additional benefits of hiring more female officers.[88] The Imperative to Hire More Women Given the many difficult challenges facing modern police agencies, the advantages for hiring more women have never been more clear. However, at the current rate of hiring, it is inevitable that women will remain under-represented within law enforcement unless traditional policies and practices are changed substantially. The good news is that changes in policies can have a dramatic impact on the recruitment and retention of women police officers. o For example, when the Albuquerque Police Department instituted a range of policies under the "New Workplace Project" funded by the U.S. Department of Labor, the percentage of female recruits increased from 10% to 25%, and they were retained at the same rate as their male counterparts.[92] o Similarly, the Tucson Police Department increased their percentage of female recruits from 10% to 29% by implementing active strategies to retain women. Furthermore, clear initiatives to address sexual harassment have been documented to better prepare officers to prevent or stop such behavior.[93] Based on both research and practical experience, there is every reason to believe that such changes will yield benefits not only to women within the police profession, but also to their male counterparts, the larger police organization, and the communities they serve. ---------------- Endnotes for Chapter 1 1. Dorothy Moses Schulz, From Social Worker To Crime Fighter: Women in United States Municipal Policing (Praeger Publishers, 1995). 2. National Center for Women and Policing, "Equality Denied: The Status of Women in Policing," (Los Angeles: National Center for Women & Policing, 1999), 1-17. 3. Carole G. Garrison, Nancy Grant, and Kenneth McCormick, "Utilization of Police Women," The Police Chief, September 1998, 32 (7). 4. Jacob C. Clark, "Is Anybody Out There?: Stiff Competition for Recruits Fuels Agencies' Personnel Woes," Law Enforcement News, April 10 1998, 1, 6. 5. Joseph Polisar and Donna Milgram, "Recruiting, Integrating and Retaining Women Police Officers: Strategies that Work," The Police Chief, October 1998, 42-53. 6. Victor E. Kappeler, Stephen F. Kappeler, and Rolando V. Del Carmen, "A Content Analysis of Police Civil Liability Cases: Decisions of the Federal District Courts 1978-1990," Journal of Criminal Justice 21 (1993): 325-337. 7. Robert J. Homant and Daniel B. Kennedy, "Police Perceptions of Spouse Abuse - A Comparison of Male and Female Officers," Journal of Criminal Justice 13 (1985): 29-47. Daniel B. Kennedy and Robert J. Homant, "Battered Women's Evaluation of the Police Response," Victimology: An International Journal 9, no. 1 (1984): 174-179. 8. Massachusetts Coalition of Battered Women Service Groups. Domestic Violence Factsheet. 9. Peter B. Bloch and Deborah Anderson, "Policewomen on Patrol: Final Report," (Washington, D.C.: The Urban Institute, 1974), 1-67. 10. Lewis J. Sherman, "An Evaluation of Policewomen on Patrol in a Suburban Police Department," Journal of Police Science and Administration 3, no. 4 (1975): 434-438. 11. Sichel et al., "Women on Patrol," National Institute of Law Enforcement and Criminal Justice (1977). 12. H.W. Bartlett and A. Rosenblum, Policewomen Effectiveness (Denver: Denver Civil Service Commission, 1977). 13. Carol Kizziah and Mark Morris, "Evaluation of Women in Policing Program," (1977). 14. Bartell & Associates, "The Study of Police Women Competency in the Performance of Sector Police Work in the City of Philadelphia," (1978). (cited in Martin & Jurik, 1996) 15. California Highway Patrol, "Women Traffic Officer Report: Final Report," (1976). 16. Pennsylvania State Police, "Pennsylvania State Police Female Trooper Study," (1974). 17. Susan Ehrlich Martin and Nancy C. Jurik, Doing Justice, Doing Gender: Women in Law and Criminal Justice Occupations (Thousand Oaks California: SAGE Publications, 1996). 18. For a review of international research, see Joseph Balkin, "Why Policemen Don't Like Policewomen," Journal of Police Science and Administration 16, no. 1 (1988): 29-38. 19. John R. Snortum and John C. Beyers, "Partol Activities of Male and Female Officers as a Function of Work Experience," Police Studies 6 (1983): 63-42. 20. Louis W. Fry and Sue Greenfeld, "An Examination of Attitudinal Differences Between Policewomen and Policemen," Journal of Applied Psycholoy 65, no. 1 (1980): 123-126. 21. Sean A. Grennan, "Findings on the Role of Officer Gender in Violent Encounters with Citizens," Journal of Police Science and Administration 15, no. 1 (1987): 78-85. 22. Catherine A. Jones, "Predicting the Effectiveness of Police Officers" (San Diego State University, 1987 (b)). (cited in Lunneborg, 1989). 23. Lincoln J. Fry, "A Preliminary Examination of the Factors Related to Turnover of Women in Law Enforcement," Journal of Police Science and Administration 2 (1983): 149-155. Patricia W. Lunneborg, Women Police Officers: Current Career Profile (Springfield: Charles C. Thomas, 1989). 24. Joseph Balkin, "Why Policemen Don't Like Policewomen," Journal of Police Science and Administration 16, no. 1 (1988): 29-38. 25. Timothy Egan, "Image of 'Man' Behind Badge Changing," New York Times, April 25 1991, A14. 26. Sean A. Grennan, "Findings on the Role of Officer Gender in Violent Encounters with Citizens," Journal of Police Science and Administration 15, no. 1 (1987): 78-85. Gary R. Perlstein, "Policewomen & Policemen A Comparative Look.," Police Chief 39, no. 3 (1972): 72-74. Lewis J. Sherman, "An Evaluation of Policewomen on Patrol in a Suburban Police Department," Journal of Police Science and Administration 3, no. 4 (1975): 434-438. Feminist Majority Foundation and National Center for Women & Policing, "Gender Differences in the Cost of Police Brutality and Misconduct: A Content Analysis of LAPD Civil Liability Cases: 1990-1999," (Los Angeles: Feminist Majority Foundation & National Center for Women & Policing, 2000). 27. Robert E. Worden, "The Causes of Police Brutality: Theory and Evidence on Police Use of Force," in And Justice for All: Understanding and Controlling Police Abuse of Force, ed. William A. Geller and Hans Toch (Washington, D.C.: Police Executive Research Forum, 1995), 31-60. Joel Garner, John Buchanan, and John Hepburn, "Understanding the Use of Force by and Against the Police," U.S. Department of Justice, National Institute of Justice , no. 11-96 (1996): 11. 28. Geoffrey P. Alpert, "Police Pursuit: Policies and Training," (U.S. Department of Justice, National Institute of Justice, 1997), 15. 29. Horvath, "The police use of deadly force: A description of selected characteristics of intrastate incidents," Journal of Police Science Administration 15 (1987): 226-238. (cited in Riksheim & Chermak, 1993). 30. Independent Commission on the Los Angeles Police Department, "Report of the Independent Commission on the Los Angeles Police Department: Summary," (Los Angeles: Independent Commission on the Los Angeles Police Department, 1991), 17. 31. Joseph Balkin, "Why Policemen Don't Like Policewomen," Journal of Police Science and Administration 16, no. 1 (1988): 29-38. Kenneth W. Kerber, Steven M. Andes, and Michele B. Mittler, "Citizen Attitudes Regarding the Competence of Female Police Officers," Journal of Police Science 5, no. 3 (1977): 337-347. R. Linden, "Women in Policing - A study of lower mainland Royal Canadian Mounted Police detachments," Canadian Police College Journal 7 (1984): 217-229. M. Vega and I.J. Silverman, "Female officers as viewed by their male counterparts," Police Studies 5 (1982): 31-39. Karin E. Winnard, "Policewomen and the People They Serve," Police Chief, August 1986, 62-63. Nancy C. Jurkin, "An Officer And A Lady: Organizational Barriers To Women Working As Correctional Officers in Men's Prisons," 32, no. 4 (1985): 375-388. 32. Lewis J. Sherman, "A Psychological View of Women in Policing," in Police Roles in the Seventies: Professionalization in America, ed. Jack Kinton (Ann Arbor, MI: Edwards Brothers, 1973), 77-95. 33. Daniel J. Bell, "Policewomen: Myths and Realities," Journal of Police Science and Administration 10, no. 1 (1982): 112-120. 34. M.T. Charles, "Performance and socialization of female recruits in the Michigan State Police training academy," Journal of Police Science and Administration 10 (1981): 209-223. (cited in Balkin, 1988). 35. Marlene W. Lehtinen, "Sexism in Police Departments," Trial Magazine, September 1976, 52-55. 36. C.J. Rogers, "Women in Criminal Justice: Similar and unique obstacles to their acceptance in law enforcement and corrections" (paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Academy of Criminal Justice Sciences, 1987). (cited in Balkin, 1988). 37. Susan Ehrlich Martin, Breaking and Entering: Policewomen on Patrol (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1980). 38. Daniel J. Bell, "Policewomen: Myths and Realities," Journal of Police Science and Administration 10, no. 1 (1982): 112-120. J. McGeorge and J.A. Wolfe, "Comparison of attitudes between men and women police officers - A preliminary analysis," Criminal Justice Review 1 (1976): 21-33. R.G. Taleny, "Women in Law Enforcement: An expanded role," Police 14 (1969): 49-51. 39. Alissa Pollitz Worden, "The Attitudes of Women and Men in Policing: Testing Conventional and Contemporary Wisdom," Criminology 31, no. 2 (1993): 203-236. 40. C.G. Sulton and R.D. Townsey, "A Progress Report on Women in Policing," (Washington, DC: Police Foundation, 1981). (both cited in Winnard, 1986). J.L. Sicehl et al., "Women on Patrol: A Pilot Study of Police Performance in New York City," (Washington, DC: National Institute of Law Enforcement and Criminal Justice, 1978). 41. Independent Commission on the Los Angeles Police Department, "Report of the Independent Commission on the Los Angeles Police Department: Summary," (Los Angeles: Independent Commission on the Los Angeles Police Department, 1991), 17. 42. The city of Los Angeles Police Department paid out $32 million in 1999 in settlements and judgements, triple from $10.2 million in 1998 (Los Angeles Times, January 11, 2000). 43. H.W. Bartlett and A. Rosenblum, Policewomen Effectiveness (Denver: Denver Civil Service Commission, 1977). (cited in Bakin, 1988). Anderson, & Gervais, 1973. Patricia Marshall, "Policewomen on Patrol," Manpower 5, no. 10 (1973): 14-20. 44. Patricia Marshall, "Policewomen on Patrol," Manpower 5, no. 10 (1973): 14-20. (cited in Bell, 1982). 45. Diane L. Pike, "Women in Police Academy Training: Some aspects of organizational response," in The Changing Roles of Women in the Criminal Justice System: Offenders, Victims, and Professionals, ed. Imogene L. Moyer (Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland Press, 1985), 250-270. (cited in Lunneborg, 1989). 46. Alissa Pollitz Worden, "The Attitudes of Women and Men in Policing: Testing Conventional and Contemporary Wisdom," Criminology 31, no. 2 (1993): 203-236. 47. Robert E. Worden, "The Causes of Police Brutality: Theory and Evidence on Police Use of Force," in And Justice for All: Understanding and Controlling Police Abuse of Force, ed. William A. Geller and Hans Toch (Washington, D.C.: Police Executive Research Forum, 1995), 31-60. 48. Peter B. Bloch and Deborah Anderson, "Policewomen on Patrol: Final Report," (Washington, D.C.: The Urban Institute, 1974), 1-67. 49. Stanard & Associates Inc., "An Investigation of Police Officer Morale," (Chicago, IL: 1997), 17. 50. Anthony Vastola, "Women in Policing: An Alternative Ideology," The Police Chief, January 1977. Lewis J. Sherman, "A Psychological View of Women in Policing," Journal of Police Science and Administration 1, no. 4 (1973): 383-394. 51. M.A. Straus and R.J. Gelles, Physical Violence in American Families: Risk factors and adaptions to violence in 8,145 families (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction, 1990). M.A. Straus, R.J. Gelles, and S. Steinmetz, Behind Closed Doors: Violence in the American Family (Garden City, NJ: Anchor Press, 1980). (both cited in Browne, 1993). 52. I.H. Frieze et al., "Types of Battered Women" (paper presented at the Annual Research Conference of the Association for Women in Psychology, Santa Monica, CA, 1980). D.E.H. Russell, Rape in Marriage (New York: Macmillan, 1982). (cited in Browne, 1993). 53. Patricia Tjaden and Nancy Thoennes, "Stalking in America: Findings From the National Violence Against Women Survey," (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice, National Institute of Justice, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1998), 19. 54. Violence Against Women Grants Office, "Stalking and Domestic Violence: The Third Annual Report to Congress under the Violence Against Women Act," (Washington, D.C.: Violence Against Women Grants Office, 1998), 67. 55. E.M. Abel and E.K. Suh, "Use of police services by battered women," Social Work 32, no. November/December (1987): 526-8. (cited in Martin, 1997). 56. Greg Anderson, "Sorichetti v. City of New York Tells the Police that Liability Looms for Failure to Respond to Domestic Violence Situations," University of Miami Law Review 40, no. 307 (1985): 333-358. 57. Mary C. Brown, "The Plight of Female Police: A Survey of NW Patrolmen," The Police Chief 61, no. 9 (1984): 50-53. 58. M. Pagelow, Woman-Battering: Victims and Their Experiences (Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1981). (cited in Martin, 1997). 59. Dorothy Moses Schulz, From Social Worker To Crime Fighter: Women in United States Municipal Policing (Praeger Publishers, 1995). Lewis J. Sherman, "A Psychological View of Women in Policing," Journal of Police Science and Administration 1, no. 4 (1973): 383-394. Katharine van Wormer, "Are Males Suited to Police Patrol Work?," (1981): 41-44. 60. Joseph Balkin, "Why Policemen Don't Like Policewomen," Journal of Police Science and Administration 16, no. 1 (1988): 29-38. Kenneth W. Kerber, Steven M. Andes, and Michele B. Mittler, "Citizen Attitudes Regarding the Competence of Female Police Officers," Journal of Police Science 5, no. 3 (1977): 337-347. Lewis J. Sherman, "An Evaluation of Policewomen on Patrol in a Suburban Police Department," Journal of Police Science and Administration 3, no. 4 (1975): 434-438. Karin E. Winnard, "Policewomen and the People They Serve," Police Chief, August 1986, 62-63. 61. Diane L. Pike, "Women in Police Academy Training: Some aspects of organizational response," in The Changing Roles of Women in the Criminal Justice System: Offenders, Victims, and Professionals, ed. Imogene L. Moyer (Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland Press, 1985), 250-270. (cited in Lunneborg, 1989). 62. Catherine A. Martin, H.E. McKean, and Lane J. Veltkamp, "Post-traumatic stress disorder in police and working with victims: A pilot study," Journal of Police Science and Administration 14 (1986): 98-101. Tineke Ritmeester and Melanie Shepard, "Violence Against Women: Do Female Police Officers Make a Difference?" (paper presented at the Minnesota Association of Women Police, Fall Training Conference, Duluth, Minnesota, October 1991), 29. (cited in Lunneborg, 1989). 63. R.J. Homant and D.B. Kennedy, "Police perceptions of spouse abuse - a comparison of male and female officers," Journal of Criminal Justice 13 (1985): 29-47. 64. The Women's Advisory Council To The Los Angeles Police Commission, "A Blueprint for Implementing Gender Equity in The Los Angeles Police Department," (Los Angeles, CA: Los Angeles Police Commission, 1993), 76. 65. Peter H. Neidig, Harold E. Russell, and Albert F. Seng, "Interspousal Aggression in Law Enforcement Families: A Preliminary Investigation," Police Studies: International Review of Development 30, no. Spring (1992): 30-38. 66. Larry Boyd et al., "Domestic Assault Among Police: A Survey of Internal Affairs Policies," (Arlington: Arlington, TX Police Department, Southwestern Law Enforcement Institute of the Southwestern Legal Foundation, 1995), 10. 67. John Feltgen, "Domestic Violence: When the Abuser is a Police Officer," The Police Chief, October 1996, 42-47. Lonald D. Lott, "Deadly Secrets: Violence in the Police Family," FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin (1995): 12-16. 68. Jacob C. Clark, "Is Anybody Out There?: Stiff Competition for Recruits Fuels Agencies' Personnel Woes," Law Enforcement News, April 10 1998, 1, 6. 69. Patricia Tjaden and Nancy Thoennes, "Prevalence, Incidence, and Consequences of Violence Against Women: Findings from the National Violence Against Women Survey," (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice, National Institute of Justice, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1999), 16. 70. "Extent, Nature, and Consequences of Intimate Partner Violence," (National Institute of Justice, 2000). 71. Independent Commission on the Los Angeles Police Department, "Report of the Independent Commission on the Los Angeles Police Department: Summary," (Los Angeles: Independent Commission on the Los Angeles Police Department, 1991), 17. William M. Timmins and Brad E. Hainsworth, "Attracting and Retaining Females in Law Enforcement: Sex-Based Problems of Women Cops in 1988," International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology (1988): 197-205. Judie Gaffin Wexler and Deana Dorman Logan, "Sources of Stress Among Women Police Officers," Journal of Police Science and Administration 11, no. 1 (1983): 46-53. 72. Carole G. Garrison, Nancy Grant, and Kenneth McCormick, "Utilization of Police Women," The Police Chief, September 1998, 32 (7). Independent Commission on the Los Angeles Police Department, "Report of the Independent Commission on the Los Angeles Police Department: Summary," (Los Angeles: Independent Commission on the Los Angeles Police Department, 1991), 17. Samual S. Janus et al., "Women in Police Work - Annie Oakley or Little Orphan Annie," (1988): 124-127. Susan E. Martin, "On The Move: The Status of Women in Policing," (1990). 73. Samual S. Janus et al., "Women in Police Work - Annie Oakley or Little Orphan Annie," (1988): 124-127. Susan E. Martin, "On The Move: The Status of Women in Policing," (1990). 74. Independent Commission on the Los Angeles Police Department, "Report of the Independent Commission on the Los Angeles Police Department: Summary," (Los Angeles: Independent Commission on the Los Angeles Police Department, 1991), 17. 75. Samual S. Janus et al., "Women in Police Work - Annie Oakley or Little Orphan Annie," (1988): 124-127. Eric D. Poole and Mark R. Pogrebin, "Factors Affecting the Decision to Remain in Policing: A Study of Women Officers," Journal of Police Science and Administration 16, no. 3 (1988): 49-55. William M. Timmins and Brad E. Hainsworth, "Attracting and Retaining Females in Law Enforcement: Sex-Based Problems of Women Cops in 1988," International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology (1988): 197-205. 76. Joanne Belknap and Jil Kastens Shelley, "The New Lone Ranger: Policewomen on Patrol," American Journal of Police 12, no. 2 (1992): 47-75. Carol Ann Martin, "Remarks: Women Police and Stress," The Police Chief, March 1983, 107-109. Judie Gaffin Wexler and Deana Dorman Logan, "Sources of Stress Among Women Police Officers," Journal of Police Science and Administration 11, no. 1 (1983): 46-53. 77. Stanard & Associates, Inc. "An Investigation of Police Officer Morale," (Chicago, IL: 1997), 17. 78. Virginia E. Pendergrass and Nancy M. Ostrove, "A Survey of Stress in Women in Policing," Journal of Police Science and Administration 12, no. 3 (1984): 303-309. 79. M.H. Silbert, "Job stress and burnout of new police officers," Police Chief 1982, 46-48. (cited in Penndergrass & Ostrove, 1984). 80. Susan Ehrlich Martin, Breaking and Entering: Policewomen on Patrol (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1980). 81. Lincoln J. Fry, "A Preliminary Examination of the Factors Related to Turnover of Women in Law Enforcement," Journal of Police Science and Administration 2 (1983): 149-155. Donald G. Zytowski, "Kuder Occupational Interest Survey scores and self-descriptive information on 348 women police" (Unpublished raw data, 1989). (cited in Lunneborg, 1989). This is also true for female correctional officers (Jurik, 1985). 82. Lincoln J. Fry, "A Preliminary Examination of the Factors Related to Turnover of Women in Law Enforcement," Journal of Police Science and Administration 2 (1983): 149-155. Peter Horne, Women in Law Enforcement, 2nd ed. (Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas, 1980). 83. Koss, et al, 1994. 84. Rosabeth Kanter, Men and Women of the Corporation (New York: Basic Books, Inc., 1977). 85. Lewis J. Sherman, "A Psychological View of Women in Policing," Journal of Police Science and Administration 1, no. 4 (1973): 383-394. 86. Lewis J. Sherman, "A Psychological View of Women in Policing," Journal of Police Science and Administration 1, no. 4 (1973): 383-394. 87. Peter B. Bloch and Deborah Anderson, "Policewomen on Patrol: Final Report," (Washington, D.C.: The Urban Institute, 1974), 1-67. 88. Peter B. Bloch and Deborah Anderson, "Policewomen on Patrol: Final Report," (Washington, D.C.: The Urban Institute, 1974), 1-67. 89. Rosabeth Kanter, Men and Women of the Corporation (New York: Basic Books, Inc., 1977). (cited in Belknap & Shelley, 1992). 90. Rosabeth Kanter, Men and Women of the Corporation (New York: Basic Books, Inc., 1977). (cited in Belknap & Shelley, 1992). 91. Henry Etkowitz et al., "The Paradox of Critical Mass for Women in Science," Science 266, no. 5182 (1994): 51 (4). Rosabeth Kanter, Men and Women of the Corporation (New York: Basic Books, Inc., 1977). 92. Joseph Polisar and Donna Milgram, "Recruiting, Integrating and Retaining Women Police Officers: Strategies that Work," The Police Chief, October 1998, 42-53. 93. Joseph Polisar and Donna Milgram, "Recruiting, Integrating and Retaining Women Police Officers: Strategies that Work," The Police Chief, October 1998, 42-53. ---------------------- Chapter 2 Assessing a Law Enforcement Agency Many approaches can be used to conduct an assessment of a law enforcement agency. Assessment by Chief Administrator The administrator of the agency may be able to make several improvements in the agency's practices just by reading this guide and identifying suggestions that will help solve an immediate problem. Many of the suggestions in the guide have minimal fiscal impact and are within the power of the chief administrator to implement. Internal Team Assessment The chief administrator may decide to establish internal assessment teams to look at certain sections of the guide and conduct an assessment of the agency's policies and procedures. The teams can then make recommendations for improvements. Community Assessment Process When conducting an assessment of the personnel policies and practices of a law enforcement agency, the chief administrator may also include a diverse group of employees and community members in the process. Labor unions, command staff, civil service administrators, elected officials, and community members all can have input into developing improvements. Conducting a self-assessment provides law enforcement administrators with an excellent opportunity to utilize a community-policing approach to improving agency practices. To most effectively conduct a comprehensive assessment, the agency administrator should give the process a high priority. Sufficient resources must be allocated, including staff support to the assessment team. As many women as possible, from all ranks within the agency, should be involved in the assessment process. Recommended Process for Medium-to-Large Agencies o Establish an assessment committee consisting of: o A diverse group of agency managers and field personnel, representing a cross section of units and functions. o Women from all ranks of the agency, including civilian women. o Labor union representatives. o Personnel experts with experience working to increase women in non-traditional jobs. The Equal Employment Opportunity director and representatives from the public entity with the responsibility for entry and promotion testing should be included. o Criminal justice professors with expertise in issues related to women in policing and community policing. o Community representatives, especially those with expertise in women's employment and sex discrimination issues (for example, representatives of the American Association of University Women, YWCA, Women's Bar Association, and National Organization for Women) or attorneys with expertise in employment and civil rights laws. o Liaisons from the public entity that controls the law enforcement budget. o Elected officials or their representatives. o Convene a full-day meeting to discuss the assessment process, introduce all members of the committee, review the status of women in the law enforcement organization, and make committee assignments. o Establish working committees by subject matter. We suggest that at least four committees be formed. (Additional committees may be formed as needed.) 1) A committee on job descriptions, the selection process, and promotion; 2) A committee on recruiting; 3) A committee on training, mentoring, performance evaluation, and awards; 4) A committee on family issues, sexual harassment, retaliation, internal affairs, and the discipline system. o Establish a timeline for assessment and the development of recommendations. The process of assessing and developing recommendations should be completed in 6 months, if possible. A 6-month goal will help keep the committees focused. o Assign adequate staff to provide information and participate in the assessment process. o One command-level person should be designated as the responsible party to provide the agency administrator with monthly briefings and to ensure that a comprehensive review is conducted. o Designate a person from the law enforcement agency to be the coordinator for all requests for information from the committees. This person will arrange for law enforcement personnel to appear at committee meetings and answer questions, as well as providing documents requested by the committees. o Hold a staff meeting with all high-ranking law enforcement personnel to explain the charge to the committees and the commitment of the agency to cooperate with the process. o When the committees have completed their assessments and prepared a final report, all members of the assessment team must be willing to listen to their ideas for improvement. Many times, they have new approaches that will help improve the operations of the law enforcement agency. In addition, the committee can be extremely helpful in obtaining budget funds from the elected officials and in gaining community support for the changes. o Determine what changes will be made and develop a detailed time/task plan for implementation. Specific responsibilities for implementing changes should be assigned. o Assign an implementation committee and a chairperson to monitor the progress of implementing recommended changes and report quarterly to the agency head and elected officials. Recommended Process for Small Agencies Because small agencies are limited in the amount of resources and staff available, the following is a modified assessment process: o Form a committee consisting of: o The command person in charge of recruiting, hiring, or training. o Women employees, if possible. If there are no women officers in the agency, seek assistance from a neighboring agency with women officers. o A woman community representative. o A personnel expert. o A lawyer experienced in civil rights and employment law. o Convene a meeting to discuss the assessment process, introduce all members of the team, learn about the status of women in the law enforcement organization, and make assessment assignments. Assign assessments to members of the team according to their expertise and time available. o Establish a timeline for assessment and the development of recommendations. o When the members have completed their assessment, reconvene the committee and discuss the findings of each part of the assessment. Prepare a final report with recommendations on changes that need to be made. Recommend priorities for making the changes. o When recommendations have been approved, assign a high-ranking person to monitor progress and report quarterly. A Word About Gender Neutrality When an agency is working to improve the environment for women employees, the use of gender-neutral language is crucial. One of the easiest ways to write or speak in an inclusive manner is to always use plurals. For example, instead of saying "the officer will write his/her report," it is much easier to say "officers will write their reports." During the assessment process, it would be desirable to have one person assigned to review the manual of procedures and other similar publications to identify areas where such revision is desirable. ---------------------- Chapter 3 Developing a Job Description Before a law enforcement agency can implement the strategies recommended in this manual to hire, promote, and retain women in policing, the agency must first write or update its job description for police officer. A current, appropriate job description for police officer is essential to the success of the recruitment, selection, training, and performance evaluation processes. Therefore, it should be carefully crafted and reviewed for gender bias. ----------------------- Throughout this manual we use the term "community policing" or "community oriented policing." Community Policing is a way of policing, not a specific program. We use the term to mean a philosophy of providing police services that is utilized within all divisions of the law enforcement agency, not just for the individuals who are assigned to a "community policing" unit. The following is excerpted from the definition of "community policing" or "community oriented policing" developed by the U.S. Department of Justice, Community Oriented Policing Services (COPS) Office: ---------------------- Community Oriented Policing is Proactive, Solution-Based, and Community Driven It occurs when: A law enforcement agency and law abiding citizens work together to do four things: o arrest offenders; o prevent crime; o solve on-going problems; o and improve the overall quality of life. Hiring in the Spirit of Service A police department's most valuable asset is its officers; and progressive departments "hire in the spirit of service, not the spirit of adventure." How officers treat citizens in their own neighborhood will dictate citizens' perceptions and support of their police department. Officers hired in the spirit of service and trained in community policing are transforming policing in America. The Future Community oriented policing stimulates creative solutions to crime problems - solutions that begin in neighborhoods. When we invest in community policing we see officers and citizens depending on one another to make neighborhoods safer. For maximum effectiveness, community policing must permeate every aspect of a department--recruiting, hiring, training, assignment and promotion--reflecting a true community policing focus. Statement of the Problem Many existing job descriptions--and the job announcements based on those descriptions for entry-level law enforcement officers--continue to place a heavy emphasis on physical attributes over other skills. These descriptions often convey the message to potential recruits that the only response to fighting crime is through the use of force, and that skills such as communication and mediation are not as highly valued. This traditional portrayal of police work will most likely screen out qualified women as potential applicants. Police agencies are increasingly moving from a 'law enforcement' model of policing to a 'service-delivery' model known as community policing. Community policing emphasizes working in cooperation with community members to solve crime and livability issues. This model of policing requires that officers be skilled in mediation, organizing, and mobilizing the community, de-escalating violence, and coordinating services with other governmental agencies. Therefore, job descriptions that do not include these skills as essential to the role of law enforcement will not attract the most qualified candidates for policing today. In addition, by failing to update the job description to reflect a community policing philosophy, organizations are sending conflicting messages to police officers about their duties and responsibilities as public servants. As stated in the Community Policing Monograph on Selection and Recruitment for Community Policing: "In particular, the role of the police officer needs to be carefully defined or redefined in most cases. Failure to do so will replicate mistakes of the past and make the organization incapable of matching future demands of policing."[1] In order for law enforcement agencies to be effective in community policing they should reflect the diverse population of the communities they serve. A job description that emphasizes the variety of duties and activities police officers face on a daily basis is essential in ensuring that women, as well as other well-qualified candidates, apply for law enforcement positions. In addition, since the job-related job description will be the basis for designing all recruitment programs, selection systems, training, promotion systems, and performance evaluation reports, it is crucial that it be current and reflect the type of law enforcement desired by the agency. Legal Issues Federal law requires that an employer's selection procedures be job-related for the position in question and consistent with business necessity. The job description is the basis for fulfilling this legal requirement. Therefore, personnel and legal counsel should review all job descriptions and consult with appropriate experts to make sure that the content is job-related. Possible Solutions, Model Policies and Practices The keys to developing the best job description for law enforcement officer are to emphasize the value that the organization places on community policing and detail the skills and duties required to successfully implement community policing practices. For example, the job description should highlight skills such as the ability to de-escalate violent situations, communicate with diverse groups of people, mediate disputes, and the capability to coordinate with other government and social service agencies. Of course, specific activities and responsibilities of a patrol officer continue to be necessary in any entry-level law enforcement job description. In summary, the job description should clearly define the duties of a law enforcement officer and the knowledge, skills, and abilities necessary to perform those duties. The primary emphasis of the job description should be providing service to the community. Duties and activities should include public service, problem solving, conflict resolution, and community organizing, in addition to law enforcement duties such as traffic control, response to crimes, and testifying in court. If an organization is transitioning to a community policing philosophy, it should be careful to define the skills required to implement this style of law enforcement in order to attract the most qualified candidates. In addition to conducting an internal job analysis, one of the best ways to develop a job description that describes the community policing philosophy is to have community organizations assist in its development. This can be accomplished by establishing a working group of community members who reflect the diversity of the community, especially as it relates to racial minorities and women. In addition, the membership of this group should reflect other populations and resources in the community such as the elderly, disabled, teens, social service agencies, college criminal justice educators, and a diverse group of employees of the law enforcement agency. Small police departments without the resources to develop a job description may find it helpful to adapt one from another agency. (Refer to the Appendix for specific examples of effective job descriptions for police officer.) Expert Assistance, Reference Materials, Contact Persons, and Other Useful Information o Refer to Appendix B for the Port St. Lucie, Florida, Police Department job descriptions for Neighborhood Officer and Neighborhood Patrol Officer. o Refer to Appendix C for the Boulder Police Department job description for police officer. -------------------- Endnotes for Chapter 3 1. Community Policing Monograph, "Recruitment and Selection for Community Policing," (Community Policing Consortium) Section 4. -------------------- Checklist for Developing a Job Description o The job description accurately reflects the duties that police officers are expected to perform. o Community input was obtained when developing the job description. o The job description has been reviewed by a legal expert to ensure that it is job-related. o The job description describes and emphasizes community policing activities along with traditional law enforcement duties. o The job description emphasizes the following knowledge, skills, and abilities: o The ability to communicate with diverse community members. o Knowledge of the value of cultural diversity. o The ability to de-escalate violent situations. o The ability to mediate disputes. o The ability to organize and work cooperatively with community groups. o The ability to communicate with diverse groupings of people. o The ability to develop and prioritize solutions for crime and community livability problems. o The ability to empathize with those holding different values. o The ability to work cooperatively with other governmental and social service agencies. o The ability to identify proactive measures to prevent problems and enhance community livability. o The ability to handle conflicting priorities. o The ability to drive a police car in hazardous conditions. (** Note: This is not an all-inclusive checklist, but merely some suggestions to assist law enforcement agencies in developing their own job descriptions.) ----------------- Chapter 4 Recruiting Quality Candidates Statement of the Problem Law enforcement agencies nationwide are experiencing severe problems in recruiting qualified candidates. An article in Governing Magazine, reprinted by the Office of the Police Corps, lists some of the reasons young people are not attracted to policing as a career: o Independent minded youth of today don't mix well with the rigid paramilitary hierarchy to which most police agencies still adhere. o Young people do not like being micro-managed. o The private security industry is growing and siphoning off people who might otherwise become police officers. o Police are associated with terror and repression in some cultures. o Many candidates have used drugs or have criminal records.[1] Stereotypes of Law Enforcement Problems recruiting women and minorities are even more severe and represent major challenges of most agencies. In order to recruit more women into policing, law enforcement agencies must overcome the common perception that policing is a "male-oriented profession" limited to duties that require only physical strength. Movies and television programs frequently show law enforcement officers in high-speed pursuits, fistfights, shoot-outs, hostage situations, and other highly dramatic situations. The reality is that day-to-day law enforcement work is seldom this eventful. Yet this stereotype of law enforcement creates serious problems for departments interested in recruiting women and men more interested in a community-oriented career. Indeed, the media stereotype of police officers contributes enormously to dissuading people who would make excellent officers under a community-policing model from pursuing a career in law enforcement. Because many women are not drawn to "use of force" as a style of law enforcement they often do not apply for jobs with law enforcement, agencies-even though in reality they have the potential to perform as well as male officers. Defining the "Ideal" Officer Some law enforcement agencies have failed to re-define skills, experience, and background qualifications they are seeking in law enforcement officers to reflect contemporary community policing values. This has seriously compromised recruiting and hiring practices in those agencies. In other words, law enforcement agencies are frequently looking for the "wrong" type of person in the "wrong" types of places. Looking to the Military Some large police agencies concentrate most of their recruiting efforts on military bases. Although this approach may generate some qualified candidates, it is extremely limited when trying to recruit women because the military has very low numbers of women. Overall, approximately 14% of the members of the armed services are women.[2] Moreover, a military background alone should not be viewed as an indicator of a qualified candidate. The military should not be excluded as a source of potential recruits, but it should not be the main emphasis in a recruitment program. In its monograph entitled "Recruitment and Selection for Community Policing," the Community Policing Consortium observes: "Military Experience. The positive arguments for recruiting ex-military personnel are that they are perceived as being mature, disciplined, physically fit, have character and are often multi-skilled. The paradox is that while military values may have been in accord with the traditional crime-fighting model-- emphasis on the 'fighting'--their values are not congruent with those of community policing. Moreover, military progress on issues of diversity, equal opportunities, equity and fairness is no model for replication in U.S. police agencies."[3] Some law enforcement agencies also conduct recruiting efforts at sporting events, sports facilities, and private security companies. Although these locations should not be overlooked, the number of women a law enforcement agency will reach using these recruiting strategies is minimal. Community policing puts an emphasis on working as partners with community members to find solutions to crime. Law enforcement agencies need to identify and pursue other sources that will produce qualified candidates with specific skills necessary to cooperatively work with various segments of the community. Agency's Civilian Workforce Many law enforcement agencies have also overlooked their own civilian workforce as a viable recruitment target. The civilian staff is overwhelmingly comprised of women who are familiar with law enforcement work and an excellent source of recruits for sworn law enforcement careers. Lack of Women Law Enforcement Role Models Because women comprise only 14% of sworn law enforcement officers nationwide, they are less visible to the community. In many communities, women never have the opportunity to see women officers as role models. For this reason, policing as a career is often not considered by most college-age women. In addition, officers have a propensity to recruit friends and relatives and to mentor them during the selection and training process. Therefore, officers in a predominantly male law enforcement agency will tend to recruit more male applicants. Lack of a Recruitment Plan Due to the strong economy, recruiting has become more difficult for many agencies. Often, law enforcement agencies try to recruit without actually developing a recruitment plan targeted at women that contains measurable outcomes. Many organizations tend to rely on the same recruiting strategies they have used for years rather than targeting their recruiting to expand and diversify the pool of qualified applicants. Frequently, there is no assessment of the recruiting efforts to determine the success of various strategies. In addition, law enforcement agencies should recognize that successful recruitment is an ongoing effort and should not be limited to the period immediately preceding an examination or creation of job openings. Hostile Work Environment Women are reluctant to apply for jobs as law enforcement officers with agencies that have a reputation of hostility towards female officers or if the agency has a high turnover rate for female officers. If they believe they will be unwelcome, women will not apply. A poll reported in Law and Order Magazine showed that only 9% of male officers accepted females openly. By contrast 38% had problems accepting females. Another 34% accepted them slowly.[4] Clearly, agencies must address the attitudes of male officers about the value of women in law enforcement. Legal Issues It should be emphasized that it is generally not permissible to recruit only members of one race, national origin, or gender. Programs that require meeting specific hiring goals for any particular group are generally prohibited under federal law except when necessary to remedy discrimination. Examples of permissible targeted recruitment advertising efforts may include (a) development of recruitment materials featuring women; (b) distribution of recruitment materials and applications to businesses owned or frequented by women, minority neighborhoods, community centers and churches, and health clubs or sports teams with primarily female membership; (c) advertisements in publications and on radio and television stations with a predominantly female audience. Examples of permissible outreach efforts include career fairs and open houses featuring women representatives of the department; contacts with women's groups; contacts with schools with an all (or predominately) female enrollment; and efforts to include women in junior officer, ride-along, and similar programs on an equal basis with men. Outreach programs and recruiting efforts targeted at women and minorities seek to broaden the pool of potential applicants by reaching a greater number of qualified individuals. These practices are likely to be considered lawful when they are part of a broader recruitment effort that makes employment opportunities known to all potential applicants regardless of their race, national origin, or gender. Possible Solutions, Model Policies and Practices Developing a Recruiting Plan that Targets Women To successfully increase the number of women in policing, law enforcement agencies should develop a specific plan of action that targets women in the recruiting process and emphasizes the agency's desire to significantly increase the number of women in its ranks. The plan should also seek to recruit candidates who possess qualities necessary to for successful community policing. In order to understand the importance of targeting recruitment efforts to groups underrepresented in a law enforcement agency, the Commission on Accreditation for Law Enforcement Agencies, Inc., states: "The recruitment standards of the law enforcement accreditation process have embraced several important philosophical concepts in this chapter. The first concept is the expectation that an accredited agency will be an equal opportunity employer. EEO understands equal opportunity as the removal of barriers that prevent people from being treated fairly for employment purposes. The second concept is the expectation that the agency's sworn work force will be representative of the available workforce in the agency's service community relative to its ethnic and gender composition. If any group is underrepresented, the recruitment plan will include proactive steps to encourage members of that group to seek employment opportunities"[5] [emphasis added]. A law enforcement agency should allocate sufficient funds, personnel, and time for recruitment. The amount of money spent in well-designed recruitment efforts will bring long-term benefits. ** Note: If the law enforcement agency is not the government entity that actually conducts the recruiting effort, this guide should be provided to the responsible unit. ------------------------- Resource: Donna Milgram, Director of the Women & Policing Institute, presents training programs on developing recruitment plans for law enforcement agencies. She has developed a recruitment assessment tool for agencies developing their recruitment plans. Contact Information: www.womenpolice.com ------------------------- A. Forming a Recruitment Committee A committee should be convened to assist in the development of a recruitment program. Successful targeted recruiting requires that the recruitment committee have active support and resource commitment from the head of the law enforcement agency. Small agencies can accomplish these activities by pooling their resources with other agencies in their region, thereby developing and implementing a recruiting program that fits the needs of all. Ideally, a recruitment committee will consist of persons committed to increasing diversity by gender and race within the law enforcement agency. Examples of persons who could be included on a recruitment committee are: o Specialists in equal employment opportunity/affirmative action; o Experts in advertising, marketing, or public relations; o Persons knowledgeable in the testing process, (for example, a civil service representative or a human resources manager from a major corporation in the community); o A diverse group of employees from the law enforcement agency, including women and minorities; o Persons to be assigned as recruiters; o Representative from organizations and businesses that primarily serve women and minorities; o Faculty members of local college criminal justice programs; o Elected officials or their representatives. The recruitment committee should be charged with developing recruiting goals for women and timetables for achieving those goals. It would be advisable to survey current women employees to determine how they first learned of jobs with the law enforcement agency, what attracted them to their job, and what they find most satisfying about their careers. This information can be extremely useful in developing a recruiting strategy. To illustrate, the New York State Police recently conducted a survey of young women to determine what would attract them to a career in law enforcement. "Project results indicated that the most preferred job attributes for women between the ages of 19 and 29 were: financial inducements and job security; supportive work climate; job enrichment (skill and task variety); and family-friendly work policies. It was also determined that misperceptions of danger may be detracting from the number of female applicants."[6] Based on the available budget, a plan should be developed to maximize advertising resources. The plan should address ways to involve the community and current employees of the law enforcement agency in recruiting qualified candidates. A monitoring system to measure the effectiveness of various recruiting methods should be included in the plan. When the plan has been developed, approved, and implemented, the recruitment committee should meet at least once every 6 months to assess progress and make any necessary modifications to the plan. Expert Assistance, Reference Materials, Contact Persons, and Other Useful Information o Refer to Appendix D for the executive summary from the New York State Police survey, "Improving the Recruitment of Women in Policing: An Investigation of Women's Attitudes and Job Preferences." For the entire study contact Lieutenant Colonel Deborah Campbell, New York State Police, at 518-485-0854. o Officer Diane Carmenty, San Antonio Police Department, has developed a successful recruiting program and offers training for recruiters. Contact her at 201-207-4227. o The New Haven Police Department recently designed a community-based recruiting program. Contact Director Kay Codish at 203-946-6308. B. Designing Recruitment Brochures and Posters The recruitment brochure is an opportunity for a law enforcement organization to describe the job of a police officer and to encourage women to apply for that job. Frequently, recruitment brochures and posters are outdated and do not reflect current policing philosophies. Brochures should emphasize community policing and the skills needed to be successful in that approach to law enforcement. Brochures should not imply that time spent in patrol is short and that officers can move into specialty positions rapidly. Typically, women are attracted to careers in law enforcement because they want to help their communities. Brochures should stress the important role that law enforcement officers play in working with the community to prevent and solve crime problems. In addition, brochures should describe the testing process in enough detail for applicants to understand exactly what will be expected of them. This is especially important when describing the physical agility testing process. Legal counsel should review the completed brochure. o The brochure should stress the organization's commitment to Community Policing and describe that approach to law enforcement. The brochure should emphasize and list the qualities desired in an officer in a community-policing system such as good communication skills, the ability to work with all types of people in the community, and the ability to resolve problems and de-escalate violence. o The brochures and posters should feature pictures of women in uniform performing police tasks. The potential applicant has to be able to envision herself in that role. Include women in high-ranking positions and quotes from current women officers about why they like their job. o The brochure should give an overview of the benefits of becoming a law enforcement officer. In addition to benefit programs such as health insurance, maternity leave, and retirement, the brochure should stress the benefits of helping the community and assisting people in crisis. Since most law enforcement agencies have good starting salaries, the starting pay should be highlighted. o A realistic expectation of career advancement opportunities should be provided. Any discussion of assignment to specialty units or possibility of promotions should be carefully written. Law enforcement organizations should attract people who will probably spend a great deal of their career as street patrol officers. o The brochure should describe the application and testing process in detail so that the applicant can take steps to prepare for that process. If an agility test is to be used, it should be clearly described and the applicants should be informed of opportunities that will be provided to help prepare them for the test. o Both the training program at the academy and the field training program should be described. Women need to understand that they will receive a great deal of training before being expected to perform the duties of a law enforcement officer. o A commitment to equal opportunities and non-discriminatory selection procedures should be asserted in the brochure. o Highlight the telephone number (preferably toll-free) and website where applicants may obtain further information. o Posters should be developed which illustrate women working in law enforcement and summarize the information contained in the brochures. o The brochure and accompanying posters should include a tear-off form that allows applicants to request an application or additional information by mail. Expert Assistance, Reference Materials, Contact Persons, and Other Useful Information o Refer to Appendix E for posters from the Michigan State Police as an example of a good recruiting tool. o Refer to Appendix F for posters from the New Haven Police Department and the Riverside County Sheriff's Department which depict different approaches to attracting the attention of potential candidates. C. Establishing a Recruiting Team Part of the success of a good recruitment campaign depends on the personnel selected as recruiters. Many women are apprehensive about applying for the job of law enforcement officer and they do not have a clear understanding of what the job entails. They want to know how they will be treated as a law enforcement officer and need detailed information about the selection process. They want to know about the law enforcement academy and training process. They have questions about pregnancy leave and other family-related issues, and they want to talk to women who are currently doing the job. Persons selected as recruiters should be especially enthusiastic about increasing the numbers of women in the agency. Assignment as a recruiter should be viewed as a desirable, career-enhancing opportunity. Recruiters should be able to respond to the questions women have about policing. While it is crucial that recruiting teams include as many female representatives of the law enforcement agency as possible, recruiters should not be selected solely because of their gender. Individuals should be selected who are unbiased, enthusiastic advocates, good speakers, and good listeners. D. Training Recruiters Commission on Accreditation for Law Enforcement Agencies standard 31.1.2 requires "Individuals assigned to recruiting activities are knowledgeable in personnel matters, especially equal employment opportunity as it affects the management and operations of the agency."[7] The CALEA manual goes on to state, "Prior to initiating recruitment activities, recruiters should undergo a training program that provides knowledge and skills in the following areas: the agency's recruitment needs and commitments; agency career opportunities, salaries, benefits, and training; federal and state compliance guidelines; the community and its needs (including demographic data, community organizations, educational institutions, etc.); cultural awareness, or an understanding of different ethnic groups and subcultures; techniques of informal record-keeping systems for candidate tracking; the selection process utilized by the central personnel agency (including procedures involved in conducting background investigations and written, oral, or physical agility examinations); recruitment programs of other jurisdictions; characteristics that disqualify candidates; and medical requirements."[8] CALEA standard 31.3.3 requires "the agency maintains contact with applicants for sworn positions from initial application to the final employment disposition."[9] We support these recommendations and add that the training of recruiters should also include information about the following: o the agency's pregnancy and family leave policies o issues unique to women in law enforcement o reasons why women may not have considered law enforcement as a career ----------------------------- Resources: The Washington State Patrol has developed a training program and resource manual for recruiters. Contact Information: Chief Annette Sandberg, 360-753-6545 ----------------------------- E. Finding Sources of Women Recruits Many agencies state that they would like to hire more women, but they cannot find any who are interested in becoming law enforcement officers. Yet women comprise about 50% of the labor force in this country, and they are clearly interested in challenging and rewarding work. Many women who are the primary wage earners in their families are concentrated in low-paying, dead-end jobs. These women are an untapped pool of potential applicants. To find potential recruits, the agency should examine its local jurisdiction and determine which places and events are likely to attract large numbers of women. --------------------------- One of the very best places to recruit women is at community colleges. Many of these students are still searching for the right career opportunity. In addition, they are frequently looking at jobs that do not pay as much as policing. --------------------------- Community organizations and businesses can be invaluable in recruiting women. Agencies need to form partnerships with community groups--particularly those promoting career opportunities for women--and enlist them in the drive to increase the numbers of women in law enforcement. Businesses and organizations can be asked to assist with resources, distribution of recruitment materials and applications, and training for the written and physical examinations. o Research your community to identify and target women in female-dominated occupations such as teachers, child-care workers, secretaries, social workers, clerical support personnel, civilian members of the law enforcement agency, and other government agencies. o Recruiting women into civilian positions such as the crime laboratory, academy instructors, 911 operators, data processing technicians, fiscal operations, crime prevention, public relations, and other support positions is very important. These women become a pool of potential candidates for sworn officers. o Many women have never considered policing as a career because they have not been exposed to women in policing. Making women officers visible is therefore essential. Agencies should take advantage of public events as an opportunity to inform the public about their commitment to diversity and gender equality in the workforce. They should strive to include female officers in outreach efforts and in specialty positions such as public information officer, honor guards, DARE programs, and all public presentations that could serve to attract women to law enforcement. o Agencies embracing a community policing philosophy usually have many community meetings to discuss law enforcement issues. Recruiting for diversity should be an item of discussion at these meetings. Community members should be urged to assist in the search for qualified candidates. o Research your community to identify and target locations frequented by women, including women-owned and oriented businesses, YWCAs, schools, grocery stores, laundromats, day-care centers, gyms, health clubs and sports programs, and athletic teams with predominantly female membership. o Develop special recruitment programs to encourage applications from women of diverse ethnic and minority backgrounds reflective of the community. Areas with large immigrant populations also provide a wealth of potential candidates. Different recruiting strategies may be needed to reach women in various subgroups within the community. Experts in these communities should be consulted for assistance in developing targeted strategies. Recruiting materials should be translated into the languages used in the community. o Out-of-state/out-of-city recruiting is not generally recommended unless it will help increase the numbers of women and minority applicants. Recruiting members of the community who are aware of the problems and culture is preferred. Out-of-state recruiting is expensive and may contribute to a high turnover of new recruits, but law enforcement organizations located close to a state border may have justification in recruiting from border communities in other states. o Applications, brochures, and posters should be placed throughout the community, not just at the law enforcement facility or government office. Again, applications, brochures, and posters should be placed in locations frequented by women. Candidates should be able to return applications by mail. o All advertising campaigns should emphasize the organization's commitment to community policing and the desire of the agency to hire more women. The emphasis on community policing and better approaches to resolving community problems should be highlighted in all recruitment efforts. Emphasize in all recruitment advertisements and materials the need for problem solving abilities, communication, community involvement, self-control under stress, and good judgment. Using the Media to Increase Recruitment of Women Officers o Agencies should undertake activities that maximize media attention and exposure for the department's efforts to recruit more women as law enforcement officers. One technique to increase media exposure is to kick off the recruiting campaign with a press conference. The Chief/Sheriff/Director should lead the press conference and have members of the local political body present to speak about their commitment to increasing the numbers of women in the law enforcement organization. Women officers in uniform should speak at the press conference to talk about why policing is a good career for women. Major events, places to obtain applications, and the toll-free number for more information should be announced at the press conference. o Take advantage of no-cost media such as radio talk shows and television news shows. The chief and women law enforcement officers can announce the recruitment campaign and urge women to apply for these jobs on community affairs programs. o Encourage print and broadcast journalists to write or produce feature stories regarding women in law enforcement, including women in the academy, women as community law enforcement officers, and awards for and promotions of women. For example, the Boise Police Department encouraged a news reporter to go on ride-alongs with a woman officer. They got a good story about the officer and her work, and the television station continues to use the footage of the woman officer as a teaser for their news program. o Utilize public service announcements on local radio and television stations year round to inform women of the career opportunities in your law enforcement organization and of specific job opportunities during the application period for particular positions. o Every public appearance the Chief/Sheriff/Director and other high-ranking officials make during a recruitment drive should stress that the agency is an equal employment opportunity employer and that women and minorities are encouraged to apply for positions as law enforcement officers. This is especially important in television appearances. o Placing articles in municipal, county, or state employee newsletters may bring in more applicants. o All media should be translated and issued in foreign language outlets such as newspapers, radio stations, and cable television channels. o Law enforcement agencies may also want to consider making a recruitment videotape and having it available at all police sites. This tape could be given or loaned to potential recruits. It could also be available for viewing at the law enforcement site. o Consider developing a cable access program about the department and the opportunities for careers for women. Utilize women members of the department as speakers to talk about their jobs. Internet Opportunities o Every law enforcement organization should have a well-designed, continuously updated Internet site that illustrates and stresses the organization's commitment to equal employment opportunity and the recruitment of qualified women. o Law enforcement organizations should reach out to community women's organizations with high-volume websites and ask them to place notices of job vacancies on their sites, or to provide a link to each law enforcement department's own site. o Agencies may want to consider implementing an on-line application process. Advertising Opportunities o Advertisements should be placed in publications with a high percentage of female readers and radio and television stations with a high percentage of female listeners and viewers. Advertisements should also be placed in publications and on radio and television stations with the widest circulation and audiences. They should be placed in public locations such as bus stops, train stations, and on public transportation. o All advertisements should depict women in uniform performing jobs as law enforcement officers. o Ask local merchants to donate billboard space or other print advertisements. o Ask local movie theaters to display recruitment slides in their pre-show presentations. o Ask local utility companies to insert a recruitment flyer when mailing utility bills. o Ask local grocers to print recruitment flyers on grocery bags. Utilizing Current Employee Resources o Train all employees on the importance of diversity and on the role of targeted recruitment as a means of building a qualified, diverse workforce. Urge them to recruit qualified applicants. o The civilian staff of any law enforcement agency is another source of women recruits. In most law enforcement agencies, women account for over 65% of the civilian staff. o Ride-along programs can be a useful tool to recruit women to law enforcement careers. o Ensure that hiring officials and supervisors are invested in the recruitment process and that the individuals responsible for recruitment seek their input on how, when, and where to recruit. o Managers should be evaluated on their commitment to equality and to increasing the numbers of qualified women. They should participate in recruitment activities and encourage their subordinates to recruit qualified women. o Involve minority and women's groups within the department in recruitment efforts. o Offer career support and mentoring programs to encourage retention of recruits. Special Events o Career fairs are excellent opportunities to recruit. Law enforcement agencies should participate in community career fairs, but should also hold their own career events. o An open house where women are invited to the law enforcement facility or academy to learn more about the job can be a successful technique. Women from the law enforcement organization should be available to answer questions. Formal presentations about the selection process, benefits, and the job should be made. Schools and Educational Programs o High school and college career centers and guidance counselors should be included on the recruitment planning committee and should be part of a routine program of recruiting. o Participate in career days at high schools and colleges. o Instructors in criminal justice programs are an excellent source of referrals. o Current employees should be encouraged to participate as instructors or guest speakers at local colleges. o High school and college work/study or intern programs should be established to encourage young women to pursue law enforcement careers. o Involve schools in pre-test training for the written, oral, and physical abilities examinations. Social Service Organizations o Identify community organizations that assist in job placement and encourage them to participate in the recruiting efforts. Provide them with posters and brochures to have available year-round and with applications during the period preceding the examination. Schedule dates when recruiters will be at these sites to answer questions. For example, the YWCA is an excellent place to recruit women. Women's Non-Profit Organizations o Many young women want to better the world and help others. Volunteers with domestic violence shelters, rape crisis centers, Big Sisters programs, and other agencies working with youth and women are excellent sources of potential candidates. Additionally, many non-profit organizations have mailing lists of women members who could be contacted for recruiting purposes. o Professional organizations for groups such as social workers, juvenile probation officers, health care workers, dietitians, probation officers, corrections officers, security guards, and physical therapists may be a source of applicants. o Women's professional groups are often seeking speakers for their meetings. Sending women officers to speak and encourage women to help recruit women and/or consider policing as a career may be effective. Organizations that Employ Women o Many women are unhappy in low-paying, labor intensive jobs that provide little mental challenge. Law enforcement agencies should closely examine the major employers in their geographic areas to identify manufacturers, factories, and other blue-collar employers as possible sources of applicants. o In addition to blue-collar jobs, many women are unhappy in traditionally female-dominated jobs such as restaurant service, childcare, and other similar occupations. These businesses may be an excellent source of applicants. Video Production o Produce a video describing community policing and utilizing female law enforcement officers discussing their jobs and its benefits. o Show the video at open houses and career fairs and make the video available to community groups, public libraries, and career fairs. --------------------------- Resource: The Boise Idaho Police Department puts on an event for women interested in becoming law enforcement officers, along with their families. Spouses and parents of women officers are invited to participate and answer questions. They are given nametags that identify them as a spouse or parent. Contact Information: Captain Mike Prynch, Boise Police Department, 208-377-6665. ----------------------------- F. Incentive Programs Most law enforcement agencies report that the best source of new recruits is current law enforcement officers. This is often an untapped source for recruiting women, and agencies are often unsure how to motivate their staff to locate potential recruits. Some law enforcement agencies have developed a unique incentive program. This plan rewards officers for bringing in a recruit who is qualified to perform the duties of a community law enforcement officer and who has the knowledge, skills, and experience the department is seeking. Rewards may take the form of money, extra time off, or other benefits. A good incentive program provides a lucrative reward and spreads it over a long period of time. For example, a reward of $1,000 could be offered to any officer who brings in a qualified applicant who becomes a law enforcement officer. The reward would be given in this manner: one third at the time the person is hired, one third at the time the recruit completes the academy training, and one third when the recruit completes probation. Not only does this program guarantee a good supply of recruits, it also builds in a mentoring system for the entire probationary period. An officer who will receive $1,000 if his or her recruit completes probation will most likely take a keen interest in the recruit's welfare and accomplishments at every step of the training program. Female and minority recruits are likely to benefit the most from this kind of program that establishes and makes accessible informal mentoring to all recruits. Law enforcement agencies should place recruiting reminders and materials in the paycheck envelopes of all employees to promote this effort. Even though this program may sound expensive, it is actually very cost-effective. Agencies will want to review the success and expense of all components of their recruitment program and consider whether some or all of the money that would normally be spent on advertising, career fairs, and other similar programs can be diverted to the incentive program. Legal Issues Agencies should check with their legal counsel and elected officials to determine how to lawfully implement this type of program. This program would likely fall under the "meet and confer" terms of any labor agreement. Also, the implementation of a monetary incentive program may be adversely affected by Fair Labor Standards Act (FLSA) considerations. G. Youth Outreach Programs Some law enforcement administrators tend to not emphasize recruiting and youth outreach programs until they have openings to fill. This does not always result in finding the best available candidates. Recruitment efforts should be ongoing. Many of the approaches described in this plan, such as use of the media, advertisements, career fairs, and contacts with community colleges and organizations, can and should be implemented year round. Some agencies have taken a long-term approach to recruiting by implementing programs in middle and high schools in their community. By interesting students at an early age in a career in law enforcement, the organization can develop an ongoing pool of highly motivated, qualified applicants. Internship programs for high school and college students are excellent tools to recruit women to policing. In addition, cadet programs, explorer scouts, and community crime prevention programs are ways to bring women into the law enforcement agency. Some law enforcement agencies have formed partnerships with local community colleges and local school districts to develop programs to attract young women to policing. For example, the City University of New York CUNY/New York Police Department Cadet Corps program offers students the opportunity to combine study towards their college degree with a program of specialized law enforcement-related training and work experience. Following successful completion of the associate degree, program participants are appointed as NYPD officers and enter the Police Academy. ----------------------------- Resource: The Police Corps provides opportunities for recruitment. Young people can get their college education paid for if they go into law enforcement as a career. This should be used as a tool to recruit women and minorities. This program would be especially appealing to single mothers and minority women. Contact Information: Director Jeff Allison, U.S. Department of Justice, Police Corps, 202-353-8953. ------------------------------- Expert Assistance, Reference Materials, Contact Persons, and Other Useful Information The Oakland, California, Police Department has developed a recruiting program that begins in elementary school and continues through college. The Los Angeles Police Department and the Los Angeles School District have developed magnet school programs for law enforcement. Contact Roberta Weintraub, 310-246-0404, or jrpolice@aol.com City University of New York and the New York Police Department have a cooperative program for recruiting women and minorities.[10] H. Monitoring Recruitment Efforts Once a recruitment program is implemented, it should be continually monitored and evaluated to determine what works and what changes may need to be implemented. To effectively monitor and evaluate recruitment efforts, the application for law enforcement officer should contain questions about how the applicant learned about the position. In addition, when potential candidates call the recruiting office, they should be asked how they heard about the positions. At least once every 6 months the recruitment committee should meet and review the recruitment program. Careful data should be kept in order to determine which pieces of the recruitment plan are successful. Successful programs should be expanded and unsuccessful programs should be discontinued or modified. Because targeted recruiting can only be successful in conjunction with a commitment to retention of qualified women, agencies should also keep records of the comparative retention rates of women and men. ---------------------------------- The Washington State Patrol has developed a comprehensive tracking system to evaluate what activities are effective in recruiting candidates Contact Information: Chief Annette Sandberg, 360-753-6545 --------------------------- I. Recruiting for State Agencies In many state law enforcement agencies, outdated policies that require newly hired employees to make a major geographic move in order to be hired are having an extremely negative impact on hiring individuals who have families or partners who are unable to relocate. Some agencies also require employees to make continuous geographic moves to progress up the career ladder, again with an adverse effect on the officer's personal life. The requirement for geographic relocation places an unreasonable burden on the spouse or partner who is forced to seek new job opportunities with every geographic move. Agencies need to review the requirement for geographic movement as a prerequisite for upward mobility. It is a factor that drastically cuts the pool of qualified applicants--both men and women. Having a policy that only requires employees to be assigned within their immediate region in order to receive a promotion would relieve the concerns many officers face about working and child-rearing. J. Recruiting for Sheriff's Departments Many sheriff's departments are responsible for correctional systems in addition to traditional field enforcement and investigative duties. Therefore, newly hired law enforcement officers may be required to serve in a correctional facility for a period of time at the beginning of their careers. This can be a disincentive for some potential candidates. The training opportunities and experience gained in the correctional setting should be emphasized as an advantage for newly hired officers. Correctional duties offer candidates the opportunity to work with clients in a controlled environment that enhances their abilities to investigate crime in the patrol or detective setting. Assignments in jail facilities also offer unique shift schedules conducive to family and educational needs. Working in corrections can also give a long-time employee job variety and end-of-career options. Sheriff's departments should examine their career rotation policies and practices to ensure that the career advancement of women officers is not unduly delayed because of lengthy assignments in corrections. Some departments such as Travis County, Texas, have classified corrections and law enforcement positions differently, providing career paths in both fields. ----------------------- Endnotes for Chapter 4 1. Christopher Swope, "The Short Blue Line," Governing Magazine, November 1999. 2. Lory Manning and Jennifer E. Griffith, "Women in the Military: Where they Stand," (Women's Research and Education Institute, 1998). 3. Community Policing Monograph, "Recruitment and Selection for Community Policing," (Community Policing Consortium) Section 5. 4. Arthur Sharp, "Recruiting & Retaining Women Officers," Law and Order Magazine, May 1993. 5. Committee on Accreditation for Law Enforcement Agencies, "The Standards Manual of the Law Enforcement Agency Accreditation Program", 4th ed. (1999) 31.1. 6. Deborah J. Campbell, Byron D. Christman, and Melissa E. Feigelson, "Improving the Recruitment of Women in Policing: An Investigation of Women's Attitudes and Job Preferences," (University at Albany, 2000). 7. Commission on Accreditation for Law Enforcement Agencies, "The Standards Manual of the Law Enforcement Agency Accreditation Program", 4th ed. (1999) p 31.1 8. The Commission on Accreditation for Law Enforcement Agencies, "The Standards Manual of the Law Enforcement Agency Accreditation Program", 4th ed. (1999) 31.2. 9. The Commission on Accreditation for Law Enforcement Agencies, "The Standards Manual of the Law Enforcement Agency Accreditation Program", 4th ed. (1999) 31.3. 10. Amy Ramson, "Women in Policing: A Success Story," Women Police, Winter 1993, 15-19. -------------------------- Checklist for Recruiting Quality Candidates Recruitment Plan o A Recruitment Committee has been established consisting of: o An Equal Employment/Affirmative Action/Civil Rights expert. o An Advertising/Marketing/Public Relations expert. o A representative knowledgeable about the agency's testing process. o High-ranking women and minority members of the law enforcement agency. o Members of the community who represent women's and minority organizations and businesses. o Recruiters from the agency or government office responsible for recruiting. o Faculty members from local college criminal justice programs. o High school and college career counselors. o High-ranking department officials. o A recruiting plan has been developed that includes goals for hiring women and a timetable for achieving those goals. o An adequate budget has been provided for recruiting, including funds for advertising and marketing. o The recruiting plan addresses ways to involve the community. o The recruitment committee meets at least twice a year to evaluate progress and make necessary modifications to the plan. Recruitment Brochure o The photographs feature women in uniform. o The photographs depict women officers performing community service functions such as working with children, the elderly, victims of domestic violence, or similar situations, as well as performing more traditional police services. o The descriptive information about the job emphasizes the role of law enforcement officers in solving community problems and helping people. o The brochure emphasizes the qualities desired in a community police officer. o Physical requirements of the job are not over-emphasized. o Pay and benefits, including family-friendly policies, are highlighted. o Minimum entry requirements are clearly described. o Career advancement opportunities are realistic. o The application and testing process is described in detail. o The training process is described in detail. o There is one telephone number to call to obtain information or sign up for the examination. o There is a te